In vitro assays have been used as early screens and cheaper alternatives to animal models, but they predominantly use two-dimensional (2D) environments that do not accurately replicate the human tissue they purport to represent. However, these models are expensive, time-consuming, low-throughput, ethically challenging, vary widely in results between species and predict human toxicity with varied success 2, 3, 4, 5. Common screens for drug toxicity use animal models that are similar in composition and structure to the human tissue they represent. Improvements in this process could significantly reduce the cost and time-to-market of new therapies. Screening for toxicity plays an important role in the drug development pipeline, as it accounts for 20% of total failures of candidate compounds 1.
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